Functional Groups

What are FUNCTIONAL GROUPS?
Functional Groups are groups of specific atoms that are responsible for chemical reactions of molecules.

The Functional Groups you should know

1. Hydroxyl is an alcohol group that dissolves organic bacteria or compound. Mostly, molecules that end in -ol belong to the hydroxyl group like alcohol, methanol, ethanol, etc.
2. Carbonyl is a functional group in which a carbon atom is joined to an oxygen atom by double bond. It gives sugar molecules longer polymers especially in carbohydrates. There are two carbonyl groups: (1) Ketose in which the carbonyl group is within the carbon skeleton; and (2) Aldose in which the carbonyl group is at the end of the carbon skeleton. 
3. Carboxyl is the functional group that is the combination of the hydroxyl and carbonyl group. In this functional group, an oxygen atom is double bonded to a carbon molecule that is bonded to a hydroxyl group. It is responsible for the formation of acid. 
4. Amino is the functional group that is responsible for the creation of the base or the polypeptide chain. It is also the building block of protein.
5. Sulfhydryl is the functional group that consists of a sulfur atom bonded to an atom of hydrogen, resembles a hydroxyl group in shape. Two sulfhydryl groups can react, forming a covalent bond. This “cross-linking” helps stabilize protein structure. Cross-linking of cysteines in hair proteins maintains the curliness or straightness of hair. Straight hair can be “permanently” curled by shaping it around curlers, then breaking and re-forming the crosslinking bonds.

The carbon skeleton of the five functional groups.

Introduction to Functional Groups

TERMS:

1. Hydrogen bond is the weakest bond because oxygen is easily attracted.
2. Carbon skeleton is the skeletal formula of an organic compound.
3. Organic compound are molecules with the element of carbon.
4. Isomer is the same number of molecules but has different molecular structure.
5. Isomerization is the chemical process in which a compound is transformed into any of its isomeric forms.

Variations of Carbon Skeleton

1. Length
2. Branching - carbon on top of another carbon
3. Double bond - represented by two connecting lines in a carbon skeleton
4. Ring type - carbons form a ring

Types of Isomer

1. Structural isomers are isomers with the same molecular formula but has different structure
2. Geometric isomers are isomers with the same molecular formula but differ in spacial arrangement
3. Enantiomer are isomers which are mirror images.

Osmosis and Tonicity in Cells

What is OSMOSIS?
OSMOSIS is the movement of water through a semi-permeable membrane.

What is TONICITY?
TONICITY is the study of water and solute. It is also the ability of the solution to lose or gain water.

Types of Tonicity in Cells

1. Isotonic solution is the solution in which the amount of solute and solvent are equal. Animal cells that are submerged into an isotonic solution is normal while a plant cell will be flaccid or soft and hanging loosely. 
2. Hypertonic solution is the solution wherein there is more solute than solvent. Animal cells in this solution tends to shrink and plant cells will undergo plasmolysis and will be plasmolyzed.
3. Hypotonic solution is the solution in which there are more solvent than solute. Animal cells that are exposed to this solution will undergo lysis and will be lysed while a plant cell will be in its normal state. The reason why plants will be in normal in a hypotonic solution is because plants need more water. 

Image of the three types of tonicity in cells

Plant Cells

What are PLANT cells?
Plant cells are cells that can obviously be found on plants. These are specialized cells that are appropriate for storing large amounts of water for food production, respiration, and other processes. These cells can also capture light from the sun to be used in making food.

Parts of a Plant cell

1. Cell wall is the outer layer that maintains the cell's shape and protects the cell from mechanical damage; made of cellulose, other polysaccharides and protein
2. Plasmodesmata channels through cell walls that connect the cytoplasms of adjacent cells.
3. Chloroplast is a photosynthetic organelle. It converts energy of sunlight to chemical energy stored in sugar molecules.
4. Central Vacuole is a prominent organelle in older plant cells. Its functions include storage, breakdown of waste products, hydrolysis of macromolecules, enlargement of vacuole is a major mechanism of plant growth
5. Nucleus
6. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
7. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
8. Ribosome
9. Golgi Apparatus
10. Mitochondrion
11. Peroxisome
12. Plasma Membrane
13. Cytoskeleton

Some notes:
To add some information on chloroplasts:

Chloroplasts contain cholorphyll that capture, absorb, and reflect light for food production.
Chlorophyll A is the chlorophyll which reflects the green pigment we commonly see in plants.

Chlorophyll B is the chlorophyll which reflects the yellow green pigment.

Chlorophyll C is the chlorophyll which is an accessory pigment which reflects any pigment.

Carotenoids reflect the orange color like we see on carrots.

Animal Cells

Animal cells are the cells that can be found in the animals and the human body. A group of cells form tissues.

Parts of the Animal cell

1. Flagellum are the locomotion organelles present in some animal cells; composed of a duster of microtubules within an extension of the plasma mebrane
2. Centrosome is the region where the cell's microtubules are intiated; contains a pair of centrioles 
3. Microvilli are projections that increase the cell's surface area
4. Cytoskeleton reinforces the cell's shape; cellular locomotion; components are made up of protein. This includes the Microtubules, Microfilaments, and Intermediate filaments.
5. Mitochondrion is the organelle where ATP is produced and where cellular respiration occurs.
6. Peroxisome is the organelle with various specialized metabolic functions; produces hydrogen peroxide as a by-product and converts it to water
7. Lysosome is a digestive organelle where macromolecules are hydrolyzed
8. Golgi Apparatus is the organelle active in synthesis, modification, sorting, and secretion of cell products
9. Ribosomes are organelles that are responsible for protein poduction
10. Cell Membrane/Plasma Membrane is the membrane that encloses the cell and protects it from unwanted substances. This also regulates what goes in and out of the cell.
11. Endoplasmic reticulum is the network of membranous sacs that is active in synthesis and has rough and smooth regions according to the ribosomes studded on them.
12. Nucleus- contain the DNA and genetic information of the cell.

• Nuclear envelope is the double membrane enclosing the nucleus
• Nucleolus is the structure involved in the production of ribosomes
• Chromatin is the material consisting of DNA and proteins

Eukaryotic Cells

What are EUKARYOTIC CELLS?
Eukaryotic Cells are cells that contain a nucleus and membrane-bounded organelles. Its name is derived from the Greek words "euka" and "karyose" which means true nucleus.

Types of eukaryotic cells
There are two types of eukaryotic cells. A type is an animal cell and the other is the plant cell.

Animal cells
Animal cell is a type of a eukaryotic cell that makes up many tissues in animals.
There are many different cell types. According to a study, there are approximately 210 distinct cell types in the adult human body.

Plant cells
Plant cell is a type of a eukaryotic cell that are only found in plants.
This cell have special characteristics that suit the needs of the plants like a large water storage and a site for their food production.

Archaea

What are Archea?
Archaea are prokaryotes that live in extreme places. They may live in places that are extremely hot, cold, acidic, etc. With this discovery, archaea are also called extremophiles.

Classifications of Archaea

1. Halophiles are archaea that live in extremely salty areas.
2. Acidophiles are archaea that live in extremely acidic places.
3. Thermophiles are archaea that live in extremely hot areas.
4. Methanogens are archaea that are found in areas with methane.
5. Psychrophiles are archaea that live in extremely cold places.
6. Alkaliphiles are archaea that thrive in alkaline environments with a pH of 9 to 11.

Halophiles

Acidophiles

Thermophiles

Methanogens

Psychrophiles

Alkaliphiles

Bacteria

Bacteria-these are the single celled organisms that are found everywhere.

Types of Bacteria:

• According to SHAPE:

1. cocci-sphere shaped bacteria



Streptococci bacteria

2. bacilli-rod shaped bacteria



Lactobacilli bacteria

3. spirilla-spiral shaped bacteria

Spirillum bacteria

• According to AMOUNT OF PEPTIDOGLYCAN present

1. Gram-positive-It contains more peptidoglycan and has a less complicated structure



A gram-positive bacteria that is stained violet

2. Gram-negative-It contains less peptidoglycan and has a more complicated structure

A gram-negative bacteria that is stained red

• According to OXYGEN REQUIREMENT

1. Aerobic-requires oxygen for them to survive



Aerobic bacteria

2. Anaerobic-does not need oxygen for survival



Anaerobic bacteria

3. Facultative-are bacteria that may live with or without oxygen to survive

Facultative bacteria

• Heterotrophic and Autotrophic bacteria

1. Autotrophic-obtain the carbon it needs from carbon dioxide
2. Heterotrophic-obtain carbon and/or sugar from their surroundings

Prokaryotic Cells

What are PROKARYOTIC CELLS?
Prokaryotic cells are cells that do not have nucleus. They also do not possess membrane-bound organelles. Its name "prokaryotic" is derived from the Greek words, "pro" which means "before" and "karyose" which means "kernel". Thus, these words mean before a nucleus which mean that prokaryotic cells have no nucleus.

What are the PARTS of the Prokaryotic Cell?

The Prokaryotic cell

1. Capsule-this is the additional outer covering of the cell. It is the protection of the cell when it is engulfed by other organisms. It helps in retaining moisture and adhere the cell to surfaces and nutrients.
2. Cell Wall-the cell wall outer covering of the cell which protects it and this gives the shape of the cell.
3. Cell Membrane/Plasma Membrane-this surrounds the cytoplasm and regulates the flow of substances that go in and out of the cell.
4. Pili-these are the hair-like structures on the cell's surface which helps the cell to attach to other bacteria cells.
5. Flagella-these are the whip-like structure that aids in the locomotion of the cell.
6. Ribosomes-these are the organelles that produce protein.
7. Plasmids-are organelles that carry the cell's genetic structure or DNA.
8. Nucleoid-Although prokaryotes do not contain nucleus, they have a nucleoid which contains single bacterial DNA molecule. 

Two Classifications of Prokaryotes

1. Bacteria-are single-celled organisms that are found everywhere
2. Archea-are prokaryotes that are found in extreme environments

Cells

What are... CELLS?
Cells are the basic and smallest unit of life. This is the building block of life and this is discovered by the biologist Robert Hooke which was the first to coin the word "cell" to describe microscopic organisms. Thus, cells are therefore microscopic unit of life that can only be seen through a microscope.

Where did CELL derive its name?
As I've said before, the word "cell" is coined by Robert Hooke. It came from the Latin word, "cellula" which means "small room". The word itself describes the cell as a small room that contains organelles for function.

Types of Cells
There are two types of cells:

• the eukaryotic cells; and 
• the prokaryotic cells. 

Introduction to Cells: The Cell Theory

What is the CELL THEORY?
The cell theory is developed by the advancing speed of technological devices such as the microscope during the mid 17th century. A lot of biologists made discoveries, hypotheses, and conclusions by the use of microscope. The biologists that are renowned for the development of this theory are Robert Hooke, Theodor Schwann, Matthias Schleiden, Anton Van Leeuwenhoek, Rudolf Virchow, and many others.

What does the Cell Theory state?
The cell theory states the three major facts about cells. The cell theory is a widely accepted explanation of the relationship between living things and cells. The cell theory includes the following:

1. All living things are made up of cells.
2. Cells are the basic unit of life.
3. Cells arise from preexisting cells.

Famous Biologists

BIOLOGISTS
These are people who study biology. Some biologists are well-known for their contribution in biology. These famous biologists are the cause of what biology is now.

Famous Biologists and their Contributions
1. Robert Hooke is the first biologist to coin the word "cell" for describing biological organisms

Robert Hooke

2. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek is the "Father of Microbiology". He is best known for the improvement of the microscope and for his contributions towards microbiology. He was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms. He was also the first to record microscopic observations of muscle fibers, bacteria, spermatozoa and blood flow in capillaries.

Anton Van Leeuwenhoek

3. Matthias Schleiden is one of the co-founders of the cell theory. He was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms.

Matthias Schleiden

4. Theodor Schwann is also one of the developers and co-founders of the cell theory. He discovered the Schwann cells, the discovery and study of pepsin, the discovery of organic nature of yeast, and the invention of the word "metabolism"

Theodor Schwann

5. Aristotle is the "Father of Biology". He was able to describe plant and animal specimens received from all parts of the far-flung Alexandrian empire. He explicitly stated that different types of organisms would be expected to differ in their ability to survive, depending on the traits they possessed. This opened up the possibility of evolution of the type described by stabilization theory.

Aristotle

6. James Watson and Francis Crick were awarded for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material. Watson’s best-selling book, “The Double Helix”, is about his DNA structure discovery. Crick was an important theoretical molecular biologist and played a crucial role in research related to revealing the genetic code. He is widely known for use of the term “central dogma” to summarize an idea that genetic information flow in cells is essentially one-way, from DNA to RNA to protein.

Francis Crick

James Watson

7. Alexander Fleming is best-known for the discovery of the enzymelysozyme in 1923 and the antibiotic substance penicillin from the mold Penicillium notatum in 1928.

Alexander Fleming

8. Robert Brown’s contributions to biology include the discovery of the cell nucleus and cytoplasmic streaming; the first observation of Brownian motion, early work of plant pollination and fertilization, and some of the early studies in palynology. 

Robert Brown

9. Carolus Linnaeus is known as the father of modern taxonomy. The naming of species called binomial nomenclature was also introduced by Carolus Linnaeus.

Carolus Linnaeus

10. Gregor Mendel is known as the “Father of Genetics”. 

Gregor Mendel

Ecology

What is ECOLOGY?
As being mentioned before, ecology is the study of the interaction of living things. Interacting with other living things helps them survive.

Interactions in Ecology


1. Competition is an interaction between two living things where organisms fight for a  particular source of living.

 Male-male competition in red deer during rut is an example of interference competition within a specie

2. Predation is where a predator feeds on its prey

Leopard killing a young Bushbuck

3. Mutualism is where both of the organisms benefit each other.

The bird benefits by eating the dirt in the crocodile's teeth while the crocodile benefits by getting his teeth cleaned.

4. Commensalism is where one organism benefits while the other is not affected or neutral.

The butterfly builds its cocoon on the branch of the tree so it benefits while the tree is not affected at all.

5. Parasitism is where an organism benefit and the other is hurt.

The mosquito benefits by sucking the blood while humans are harmed because they get mosquito bites.

Characteristics of Life

What are the CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE?
These are the life's characteristics that we need to survive and grow. These are the processes that we commonly use in our daily life. There 7 major characteristics of life:

7 Characteristics of Life
1. Homeostasis
----------Homeostasis is the internal balance of a living thing. These internal balance include the following:

• Body Temperature
• Blood Volume
• pH Balance
• Water balance

2. Reproduction

----------Reproduction is the ability of living things to reproduce of the same type. 

• Asexual Reproduction-a single parent organism reproducing itself. 
• Sexual Reproduction-two different parent organisms contribute genetic information. This involves the combination of male and female sex cells.

3. Growth and Development

----------All organisms grow and develop. Growth means to get bigger in size and development means a progression from a simpler or lower to a more advanced, mature, or complex form or stage.

4. Metabolism

----------All organisms use energy. The sum of chemical energy they use is what we call metabolism. 

• Anabolism is the process of building up complex substances from simpler substances. (e.g building up cells and cellular components, photosynthesis)
• Catabolism is the process of breaking down complex substances into simpler substances to release energy. (e.g digestion, cellular respiration)

5. Adaptation 

----------Adaptation is the ability to change over a period of time in response to the environment. It is the process that enables organisms to become better suited to their environment. Species obtain adaptations through evolution over great periods of time. (e.g desert plants have succulent waxy leaves and stems to store water)

6. Excretion

----------Excretion is the ability of living things to excrete waste

7. Organization

----------All living things have high level of organization being subdivided into cells, cells into organelles, and so on.

Awareness for Endangered Species

What is an Endangered Specie? 

An endangered specie is a specie that is yet to be extinct. Extinction means no longer existing or living. Endangered species are species that are rarely found like the following:

Endangered Species

1. Tarsier (Tarsius) is the world's smallest primate. It has big eyes and its head can turn 360 degrees. This specie can be found in Bohol, Philippines. 

2. Tigers (Panthera Tigris) are one of the world's largest cats. It has black stripes and big canine teeth. This specie is native to eastern and southern Asia.

3. Penguins (Spheniscidae) are group of aquatic, flightless birds. They are highly adapted for water and have countershaded dark and white plumage and their wings have become flippers. These species are commonly found in Antarctica.

4. Polar bear (Ursus Maritimus) is the world's largest land carnivore and also the largest bear. It has thick furs for adapting to their cold environment. It is a native largely within the Artic Circle. 

5. Blue Whales (Balaenoptera musculus) is the largest known animal to have ever exist. Blue whales have the length of 98 feet. The blue whale is commonly found in deep oceans and can be seen as early as March and April with the peak between July and September in South California.

There are so many more endangered species around the world but I'm only giving some of the best examples. Animals help people to live that is why people should also help animals to live. Animals won't be wild if we aren't wild to them. Always remember the golden rule, "Do unto others what you want others do unto you"

The Branches of Biology

BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
As I've said before, biology is a complex study of life and all living things. Biology has many sub-divisions which are known as its branches.

As of this moment, these are the branches of biology that I know:

1. Anatomy is the study of form and function
2. Biotechnology is the manipulation of living things 
3. Botany is the study of plants
4. Ecology is the study of interaction between living things
5. Entomology is the study of insects
6. Epidemiology is the study of the factors that affect our health
7. Evolutionary Biology is the study of the origins of living things and how they evolve
8. Genetics is the study of the genes and hereditary
9. Herpetology is the study of reptiles and amphibians
10. Histology is the study of cells and tissues; a microscopic branch of anatomy
11. Ichthyology is the study of fishes
12. Limnology is the study of inland waters
13. Microbiology is the study of microorganisms
14. Molecular biology is the study of biology and biological functions at the molecular level, some cross over with biochemistry
15. Mycology is the study of fungi
16. Oceanography is the study of the oceans and ocean life
17. Oncology is the study of cancer processes
18. Ornithology is the study of birds
19. Paleontology is the study of fossils
20. Pathology is the study of diseases
21. Parasitology is the study of parasites
22. Physiology is the study of the functions of living organisms, organs, and parts
23. Virology is the study of viruses
24. Zoology is the study of animals

There are many more branches of biology but these branches are the most commonly used and probably the most commonly taught in schools. 

What is Biology?

BIOLOGY
Biology is the study of life. This includes all living organisms, their structure, different functions, growth and development, origins, and also taxonomy.

Biology is a very complex study. From the smallest of all the smallest to the biggest of all the biggest!

Where did Biology got its name?
Biology is derived from the Greek words "bios" which means life and the suffix "logia" which means the study of.